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THE
EFFECT OF SHIFTING CULTIVATION IN OVIA NORTH EAST LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF EDO
STATE
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to investigate
the effect of shifting cultivation in Ovia North East Local Government Area of
Edo State five research questions were formulated and analyzed. The respondents
were made up of farmers in five community which are Ekiadolor Community, Okokhuo
Community, Ekoabetu Community, Iyowa community and Iguikhinmwin Community all
in Ovia North East Local Government Area of Edo State. All the respondents were
randomly selected from the five community one hundred farmers were used in a
whole. One set of instrument was used in collecting data for the study i.e.
questionnaires. The data collected from the respondents were analyzed using
simple percentages from the analysis of data, the following were the findings.
That farmers in Ovia North East Local Government Area of Edo State practice
shifting cultivation as a method of
farming. That the government is putting machinery in place to reduce the
practice of shifting cultivation in the local government area. That shifting cultivation has effect on the
forest cover among others. On a final note recommendations were made by the
researcher on how to meliorate the problem of shifting cultivation in Ovia
North East Local Government Area of Edo State.
TABLE OF CONTENT
Chapter One
Introduction
Background of the study
Statement of problem
Purpose of the study
Research question
The significance of study
Scope of study
Objective of the study
Limitation of the study
Definition of terms
Chapter Two
Literature review
Chapter Three
Methodology
Population of study
Sample procedure/techniques
Research instrument
Validation of research instrument
Method of data collection
Method of data analysis
Chapter Four
Data analysis
Chapter Five
Summary, conclusion and recommendation
Principal findings
Summary
Recommendations
References
Questionnaires
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
Shifting cultivation in general, is a system
of farming in which fields are prepared by cutting down the natural
vegetations. Letting it dry and burning it off. This technique serves to clear
the field and enrich the soil with nutrients from the ash. Shining cultivation
fields are generally used not more than two years at a lime, after which the
fanners move to a new area and repeat the process. The practice of shifting
cultivation is accepted as an early stage of the agricultural evolution. This
form of cultivation is still widely practiced in different parts of the world.
As this practice dates back to the earliest times, it is thus regarded as
primitive and archaic.
and thereby it is said to have ‘survived
longest’ (Rolwey-Conl, W. Y, 2004).
The shifting field agriculture is
characterized by ill rotation of’ fields rather than of crops, with short
period of cropping alternating and long fallow period, and clearing by means of
slash-and-burn. The practice of shifting cultivation is also referred to as slash-and-burn.
Shifting cultivation’ has various local names, such as Khoriya, bhasme, Ihose’, and, so on. In this study, t
he researcher used the local term ‘Khoriya’ and the general term ‘shifting
cultivation’ interchangeably. In this study, the researcher intend to review
different approaches and perspectives to study the shifting cultivation.
Finally, the researcher would present some arguments as the major findings of
my own field study (Dhakal 2009)
in the Arun valley of eastern Nepal’. The study, as the researcher expect, will
shed some light on how shifting cultivation has been approached and studied. It
further intensify to enhance the way of understanding how possibly the practice
of shifting cultivation might be approached in a particular context.
Spencer (2006) observed that ‘it is culture
and cultural history, rather than physiography, which dictate the broad
environmental location of shifting cultivation as a cropping system’ (Spencer
2006). And many have argued and agreed upon that it is ‘a special stage in the
evolution from hunting and food gathering to sedentary fanning’ (Geertz 2004),
hence, it is an ‘ancient’, ‘primitive system’, therefore a ‘remnant of the
past…’ (Spencer 2006, Found 2007: 2, Keesing & Strathern 2008). Spencer
further maintains that ‘there are evidences to suggest that it spread
progressively across almost the whole of southern and eastern Asia, Europe, and
humid Africa in the early stage of settlement of these regions by agricultural
folk’ (2006).
Although there is a long history of the
practice of shifting cultivation, very little has been studied or explored in
the anthropological context. Even up to the present, very little is known about
the geographical range, characteristics, socio-cultural as well as ideological
contexts, and diversity and dynamics of shining cultivation. This is because
the studies of shifting cultivation have been limited to simple description of
practices and its ecological consequences. There has been very little attempt
to compare. Analyse, and classify them. Very few studies have been carried out
with regard to the shifting cultivation (Shrestha 2009, Bajracharya el. al.
2003, Subedi 2004). These studies are basically concerned with the ecological
and economic aspects of the shifting cultivation. These studies hardly look
shifting cultivation as an integral part of social cultural practices with a
cultural historical perspective. Therefore, efforts have yet to be made in
order to understand shifting cultivation as a whole system of deriving a living
from a particular environment Shifting Cultivation and Evolution of
Agriculture:
It is certainly not an easy task to trace its
historical background. However, it is argued that this type of agriculture was
the simplest form of agriculture and was practiced by the earliest farmers.
Today, such a different type of agricultural system can be observed throughout
the globe in the tropical areas. The practice, however, varies greatly from
place to place and from one group of people to another. Terry B. Grandstaff
(2001) argues that the people who have used this form of cultivation for a long
time have developed a highly rational system. Generally, the practice of
shifting cultivation is viewed as ‘a technology that was practised in virtually
every arable area of the earth during earlier historical periods but today
survives as a major food producing method only in tropical region’ (Padoch
& Vayda2003). Some even view that in terms of land use pattern shifting
cultivation evolved to circumvent major problems of tropical agriculture like
soil erosion, low nutrient status and pest pressure (Spencer 2006). In defence
of this line of logic. Subash-Chandran maintains that the brief period of
utilization. Small size of the plots and far-reaching preservation of the
original surface roughness and soil texture due to residual tree stumps,
absence of levelling prevent intensive erosion (Subash Chandran 2008).
Geertz summarized the distinctive features of
shifting cultivation as, (i.) it is practised on a very poor soils, (ii.) it
represents an elementary agricultural technique which utilizes no tool except
the axe and the hoe. (iii.) it is marked by a low density of population. and,
(iv.) It involves a low level of consumption (Geertz 2004). This type of
cultivation is thus associated with traditional societies of low population
density in regions of low soil fertility, such as the Amazon rainforest. Though
recent theories have suggested that the system of shifting agriculture combined
with hunting and gathering strategies may. in fact, permit much greater
population densities and a greater degree of sedentarism and varying degree of
intensification of labour input than was previously believed (Found 2007,
Keesing & Slrathem 2008).
However, shifting cultivators are considered
to be one of the primary agents for transforming the forested landscape into
cultivable and cultural one. Historically, therefore, shifting cultivation has
been one of the processes transforming wild. forested landscape into cultural
landscape. In a strict epistemological sense, we cannot understand the past
except via our present knowledge of process and events operating in the present
(Watson 2009). This does not mean that every trait that existed in the past
must have an analogy in the present. Nevertheless, the study like this can
provide a wider socio-cultural context to analyse and explain archaeological
data from specific sites. In the similar manner, the study might be used as a
case study to test the hypothetical explanation of processes and procedures
thought to have occurred in specific prehistoric communities.
Shifting cultivation is a very popular
agricultural practice especially in the tropics. Christanty (2006) defined it
as an agricultural system which is characterized by a rotation of field rather
than of crops, short period of cropping (one to three years) alternated with
long fallow period (up to twenty or more years, but often as short as six to
eight years); and clearing by means of slash and burn. However, land used for
agriculture and nonagricultural purposes have created land scarcity, leading to
shorter fallow periods. In many cases, farmers have reduced their fallow
periods below the sustainable level necessary to maintain an ecological balance
under shifting cultivation (Harwood, 2006; Adesina et al., 2000; Brady,
2006; Essama-Nssah et al., 2002), thereby
making the traditional sustainable slash and burn agriculture unsustainable and
environmentally degrading.
The increase in human populations and
urbanization particularly in the developing countries, have put tremendous
pressure on land. As human populations continue to grow, land use intensity
increases, and the negative effects of deforestation are likely to worsen
(Chazdon, 2003). The extension of arable cropping for increased food production
has been directly responsible for the reduction in forested areas. Reports have
shown that 40% of the land surface of the earth was converted into cropland and
permanent pasture by early 1990s (Rajiv and Upandhyay, 2009). Due to increase
in human populations, fallow periods of shifting cultivation have drastically
reduced, making the farmland to be infertile or
less fertile. As a result, the hunger for
fertile forested lands is on the increase just to meet the demand for food
security in the rural areas and to improve the economic situation of the rural
dwellers.
Although, shifting cultivation is estimated
to support the livelihoods of some 300-500 million people worldwide (Brady,
2006), the slash and burn tendency especially where fallow periods have
drastically reduced due to increasing populations, has grave implications for
trees and the majority of people that depend on them. The dependence of people
on trees and forests is unlimited. More than 25 percent of the world’s
population – an estimated 1.5 billion people – relies on forest resources for
their livelihoods, and of these almost 1.2 billion live in extreme poverty
(World Bank, 2001). Given the importance of trees to the environment
and rural livelihoods, the need for empirical
ecological knowledge that will aid a systematic understanding of the impact of
land use intensification through shifting agriculture, on tree populations,
cannot be overemphasized.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Shifting cultivation is said to be one of the
unsustainable land uses contributing significantly to environmental degradation
in Nigeria (Luoga, 2000; Zahabu, 2008). Clearing forests for shifting
cultivation can contribute to climate change, biodiversity loss, reduced timber
supply, flooding, siltation, soil degradation and change of forest vegetation
from primary to secondary and eventually to grassland (Holden, 2001).
In the past, shifting cultivation was not
considered to be amongst unsustainable agricultural practices due to long
fallow period allowing enough time for regeneration (Luoga, 2000). Today due to
increased population pressure, high demand of cereals and growth of urban
markets for forest products shifting cultivation has been intensified with
fallow period reduced from 25 years to less than 3 years (Luoga, 2000;
Mwampamba, 2009; Nduwamungu et al., nd).
Despite the fact that shifting cultivation
was identified long time ago as a threat to tropical forests (FAO 1999) to date
there is limited information to demonstrate its impact on forest cover change
and nutrients dynamics in Nigeria. The few studies which have been conducted
were based on assessment on the impacts of shifting cultivation on biodiversity
and carbon in high forests (Mwampamba, 2009) and other researchers are based on
general overview of the contribution of shifting cultivation to deforestation
in Kitulangalo Forest Reserve (Luoga,2000; Nduwamungu et al.,nd) Either,
shifting cultivation has always been linked to decline in soil fertility.
However, there is limited information with regards to dynamics of essential
nutrients in areas practicing shifting cultivation. The information on
nutrients dynamics at different fallow ages and cultivation duration is even
scarcer (Diekmann, 2004). Also other factors which can contribute to shifting
cultivation, such lack of proper farming techniques, site and crop matching,
weak land tenure in acquiring land remain largely untested.
1.3
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The overall objective: To address the
contribution of shifting cultivation on forest cover change and nutrients
dynamics in Nigeria through comparison of forests with and without shifting
cultivation and forests under different fallow age and cultivation history in
selected parts of Nigeria
Specific Objectives;
1. To identify the socio- economic drivers of
shifting cultivation
2. To asses nutrients status of fields under
different fallow age and cultivation history
3. To asses forest cover change due to
shifting cultivation since 1980s,
4. To determine the role of institution for
prevention and control of shifting cultivation
5. To assess the perception of local people
toward shifting cultivation
6. To assess the effects of crops under
shifting cultivation on nutrients dynamics
1.4
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. Why do farmers practice shifting
cultivation?
2. What is the effect of shifting cultivation
on forest cover?
3.What is the role of formal and informal
institutions on control and prevention of shifting cultivation?
4. How does nutrients and vegetation recovery
vary on farms at different fallow periods?
5. How does cultivation period and fallow age
correlated to soil nutrient dynamics?
1.5
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study is expected to bridge this
information gap. The findings will contribute towards understanding of the
dynamics of forest cover and soil nutrition in areas practicing shifting
cultivation.
Given the importance of trees to the environment
and rural livelihoods, the need for empirical knowledge that will aid a
systematic understanding of the impact of land use intensification through
shifting agriculture, on tree populations, cannot be overemphasized.
The study was a step in that direction. The
importance of the study is that it will help to find out the abundance of
uncultivated forestland and arable farmlands of different ages.
This study will also help to ascertain the
agriculture on tree diversity; and to determine the extent of tree species
compositional variation between the uncultivated forestland and different
chronosequences of cultivated lands; and lastly, to ascertain the extent of
change in individual tree populations due to varying degrees of shifting
cultivation.
This study will also find out how farmers
relate their farming practices to various environmental consequences. And how
different crops under shifting cultivation affect soil nutrient?
1.6
SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study is set out to find out the effect
of shifting cultivation on agricultural land a case study of Ovia North East
Local Government of Edo State. Five communities were selected in Ovia North
East Local Government they include; Ekiadolor Village, Okokhuo Community,
Ekoabetu Community, Iyowa Community and
Iguikhimwin Community.
1.8
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Shifting cultivation: the system of farming
in which fields are prepared by cutting down the natural vegetations
Agriculture: This may be explained as the
cultivation of crops, processing, marketing and the rearing of animal for man’s
satisfaction.
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